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- Bt corn is resistant to European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis).
- GM potato was modified for late blight resistance and higher starch content.
- Biofortification aims to increase the nutritional value of crops through breeding or genetic modification.
- Iron-rich rice, Zinc-rich wheat, and Golden Rice are examples of biofortified crops.
- Antisense RNA technology is used to suppress gene expression (e.g., Flavr Savr tomato).
- Molecular farming refers to production of pharmaceutical proteins in plants (“pharming”).
- Edible vaccines are produced in transgenic plants like banana, tomato, and potato.
- Bt cotton controls bollworm infestation, reducing pesticide usage.
- Cry2Ab and Cry1Ac are common Bt genes used in cotton.
- Roundup Ready Soybean is resistant to glyphosate herbicide.
- EPSPS gene confers resistance to glyphosate herbicide.
- Glufosinate resistance is provided by the bar gene.
- Nif genes are responsible for nitrogen fixation in Rhizobium.
- Nod genes control nodule formation in legumes.
- Transgenic rice expressing Xa21 gene shows resistance to bacterial blight.
- Transgenic potato expressing cry3A gene resists Colorado beetle.
- Biofertilizers like Rhizobium, Azospirillum, and Azotobacter enhance soil fertility naturally.
- Biopesticides are derived from natural organisms such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses.
- Baculovirus is used as a biocontrol agent against insect pests.
- Trichoderma spp. are used as biocontrol fungi against soil-borne pathogens.
- Bioremediation uses microbes or plants to clean up pollutants from the environment.
- Phytoremediation uses plants to remove or degrade environmental contaminants.
- Biotechnology in livestock includes artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and cloning.
- Dolly the sheep was the first cloned mammal (1996) by Ian Wilmut and colleagues.
- Marker-assisted selection (MAS) helps in faster and accurate crop improvement.
- QTL mapping identifies regions of DNA associated with quantitative traits.
- Genomics is the study of the complete set of genes in an organism.
- Proteomics deals with the study of all proteins expressed by a genome.
- Metabolomics studies all metabolites present within a biological sample.
- Bioinformatics tools like BLAST, FASTA, and GenBank help analyze and store biological data.
- Molecular markers are identifiable DNA sequences used to track genes or traits in plant breeding.
- Common types of molecular markers include RFLP, RAPD, AFLP, SSR, SNP, and ISSR.
- RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) was the first DNA marker technique developed.
- RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA) uses short random primers for DNA amplification.
- AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) combines restriction digestion and PCR amplification.
- SSR (Simple Sequence Repeat) or microsatellite marker is highly polymorphic and co-dominant.
- SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) markers are based on single base pair variations.
- Molecular markers help in marker-assisted selection (MAS) for faster plant breeding.
- DNA fingerprinting is used for varietal identification and genetic purity testing.
- RAPD markers were first used for plant genetic diversity by Williams et al. (1990).
- Genome mapping refers to locating genes on chromosomes.
- Arabidopsis thaliana was the first plant to have its complete genome sequenced (2000).
- Rice (Oryza sativa) was the first crop plant genome sequenced (2002).
- Genomics provides insights into gene function, evolution, and plant improvement.
- Transcriptomics studies RNA transcripts expressed in a cell or tissue.
- Proteomics analyzes protein structure, function, and interaction in organisms.
- Metagenomics studies genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples.
- Metabolomics identifies and quantifies small molecule metabolites in biological systems.
- Functional genomics helps understand gene functions and interactions.
- Comparative genomics compares the genomes of different species for evolutionary studies.
- Bioinformatics integrates biology, computer science, and statistics to analyze biological data.
- GenBank, maintained by NCBI, is a major public database for nucleotide sequences.
- BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) is used to find regions of similarity between sequences.
- DNA sequencing determines the exact order of nucleotides in DNA.
- Sanger sequencing is a chain termination method developed by Frederick Sanger (1977).
- Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) allows high-throughput sequencing of genomes.
- DNA barcoding uses short genetic sequences to identify species.
- Cry genes from Bacillus thuringiensis produce insecticidal crystal proteins.
- Cry1Ac controls bollworms; Cry2Ab controls armyworms.
- Bt toxin binds to the midgut epithelium of insects, causing death.
- Bioherbicides are living organisms used to control weeds (e.g., Colletotrichum gloeosporioides).
- Bioplastics are biodegradable plastics made using microorganisms like Ralstonia eutropha.
- Biopharming is the production of pharmaceutical products in plants and animals.
- Golden Rice contains β-carotene synthesized using psy and crtI
- Flavr Savr tomato was the first genetically modified (GM) food crop approved (1994, USA).
- Bt cotton was the first GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India (2002).
- Genetically modified crops are regulated in India by GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee).
- GEAC functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
- RDB (Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation) operates under DBT (Department of Biotechnology).
- NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources) conserves germplasm diversity in India.
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