Module 4

1. Base editing allows precise conversion of one DNA base into another without cutting DNA.
2. Prime editing can insert, delete, or replace DNA sequences without double-strand breaks.
3. CRISPR-Cas12 and Cas13 are new variants used for RNA targeting.
4. Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and statistics to analyze biological data.
5. GenBank is a public database of nucleotide sequences maintained by NCBI (USA).
6. BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) compares DNA or protein sequences for similarity.
7. FASTA is another tool for sequence alignment.
8. Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins and their functions.
9. Metabolomics involves analysis of metabolites in cells and tissues.
10. Transcriptomics studies RNA transcripts produced by the genome.
11. Functional genomics identifies gene functions and their interactions.
12. Comparative genomics compares genomes of different species to find similarities and differences.
13. Arabidopsis thaliana was the first plant to have its genome completely sequenced.
14. Rice (Oryza sativa) was the first crop plant to have a fully sequenced genome.
15. Nanobiotechnology applies nanotechnology to biological systems and agriculture.
16. Nanofertilizers enhance nutrient use efficiency and reduce losses.
17. Nanopesticides allow controlled and targeted delivery of active ingredients.
18. Nanosensors detect pathogens, toxins, or nutrient deficiencies in soil or crops.
19. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have antimicrobial properties used in plant disease management.
20. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can deliver DNA or drugs into plant cells.
21. Quantum dots are fluorescent nanoparticles used for bioimaging.
22. Biosafety deals with preventing risks from biotechnological applications.
23. Bioethics concerns moral and ethical issues in biotechnology.
24. Containment refers to physical or biological barriers to prevent escape of GMOs.
25. India’s main biosafety authority is the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the MoEFCC.
26. RCGM (Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation) functions under the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
27. Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSCs) operate at laboratory level for monitoring.
28. NBA (National Biodiversity Authority) regulates access to genetic resources in India.
29. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) regulates GMOs in the USA.
30. FDA (Food and Drug Administration) ensures safety of GM food products in the USA.
31. FAO and WHO jointly evaluate GM food safety globally.
32. Bt cotton is the only genetically modified crop approved for commercial cultivation in India (as of 2025).
33. Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab genes provide resistance against bollworms in Bt cotton.
34. Biosafety Level (BSL) laboratories are categorized from BSL-1 to BSL-4 based on risk level.
35. Biosafety Level-1 (BSL-1) is for low-risk organisms, while BSL-4 handles the most dangerous pathogens.
36. Golden Rice was developed using β-carotene genes from daffodil and bacterium Erwinia uredovora.
37. GM mustard (DMH-11) was developed by Delhi University using barnase-barstar-bar gene system.
38. Bioeconomy refers to the economic potential derived from biotechnological innovation and biological resources.
39. Swiss-Prot is a curated protein sequence database.
40. UniProt integrates several protein databases for functional annotation.
41. DNA barcoding uses a short DNA sequence to identify species.
42. The COI (Cytochrome Oxidase I) gene is commonly used in animal barcoding.
43. rbcL and matK genes are used for plant DNA barcoding.
44. Metabarcoding uses high-throughput sequencing to identify multiple species in environmental samples.
45. Biofertilizer development uses biotechnology to enhance nitrogen fixation and nutrient uptake.
46. Biopesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis are developed through microbial biotechnology.
47. RNA interference (RNAi) is used to silence specific genes in pests or pathogens.
48. Papaya ringspot virus-resistant papaya was developed using RNAi technology.
49. RNAi-based brinjal targeting fruit and shoot borer genes has been developed experimentally.
50. Gene pyramiding combines multiple resistance genes in one variety for durable resistance.
51. Molecular breeding integrates genomics, bioinformatics, and biotechnology to accelerate crop improvement.
52.  
53. RNA interference (RNAi) silences target genes using small interfering RNA (siRNA).
54. Bt brinjal was the first genetically modified food crop approved for commercial release in India (later withheld).
55. Golden banana is being developed to combat Vitamin A deficiency.
56. Gene pyramiding involves combining multiple resistance genes into one plant.
57. Pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) involves using pathogen genes to develop resistance in plants.
58. Transplastomic plants have foreign genes inserted into chloroplast DNA.
59. Biotechnological biosafety ensures safe handling and use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
60. Cartagena Protocol (2000) governs international movement of living modified organisms (LMOs).
61. Codex Alimentarius Commission sets safety standards for GM food globally.
62. Gene editing refers to precise alteration of DNA sequences in living organisms.
63. CRISPR-Cas9 is the most advanced and widely used gene-editing tool.
64. CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats.
65. Cas9 is a nuclease enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sites guided by RNA.
66. sgRNA (single guide RNA) directs Cas9 to the target DNA sequence.
67. The CRISPR system was discovered in bacteria as a defense mechanism against viruses.
68. Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2020) for CRISPR-Cas9 discovery.
69. TALENs and ZFNs (Zinc Finger Nucleases) are earlier gene-editing tools.
70. CRISPR-Cas9 is faster, cheaper, and more accurate than previous technologies.
71. Off-target effects are unwanted changes caused at non-target DNA sites.
72. Knockout plants are those in which a specific gene is completely inactivated.
73. Knock-in plants have a specific gene inserted into their genome.