Water Resources: 

Water is an invaluable resource that sustains all life forms on Earth. Access to clean water is a fundamental human right, and its management is crucial for human survival, ecological balance, and economic stability. As recognized by the United Nations, water is not merely an economic commodity but a social and cultural good.

Global Water Distribution

Water covers approximately 70%-75% of Earth’s surface. However, the availability of water for human consumption is limited due to its distribution in different forms:

1. Oceans and Seas: About 97.2% of Earth’s total water is contained in the oceans and seas. This water is saline, making it unsuitable for direct consumption and agricultural purposes.
2. Freshwater:
   • 3% of Earth’s water is freshwater. However, most of this is inaccessible or locked in glaciers and ice caps.
     • 2.15% of the total freshwater is stored in polar ice caps and glaciers.
     • Less than 1% of the freshwater is found as surface water (rivers, lakes) and subsurface water (groundwater), which is the primary source of water available for human use.
3. Renewable Water: Water is a renewable resource, meaning its form may change (e.g., through evaporation and precipitation), but the total quantity of water on Earth remains constant over time.

Water in India

India’s water resources are highly diverse due to the country’s geographical and climatic variations. The country’s water wealth, as per the National Commission on Agriculture, is estimated to be around 400 million hectare-meters, assuming an average annual rainfall of 1,200 mm. However, water distribution is unequal, with areas receiving abundant rainfall contrasted with others suffering from extreme droughts.

Main Sources of Water in India:

i) Rainfall:

• • India has an average annual rainfall of 1,170 mm, making it one of the wetter countries globally.
  • However, rainfall is highly unevenly distributed, both geographically and seasonally:
    • For example, Cherrapunji in the northeast receives 11,000 mm of rainfall annually, while Jaisalmer in the west receives less than 200 mm.
  • The monsoon season (June to September) accounts for about 75% of the total annual rainfall in India. This short but intense rainfall period contributes to regional water scarcity and floods.

ii) Groundwater:

• • Groundwater resources in India are vast, almost ten times the annual rainfall. The Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) estimates India’s exploitable groundwater potential at 26.5 million hectare-meters.
  • Groundwater plays a crucial role in irrigation, supplying 85% of water used for irrigation purposes, thus supporting the country’s agriculture.
  • Groundwater is also the primary source for domestic water needs, particularly in rural areas, where it accounts for 70-80% of the water supply.
  • Despite the abundance of groundwater, over-exploitation is a significant issue. In many regions, the water table is declining by 1-3 meters annually, and India is extracting groundwater twice as fast as it is being replenished.

iii) Surface Water:

• • India’s river systems consist of 14 major, 44 medium, and 55 minor river basins. The major river basins cover around 83-84% of India’s total drainage area.
  • The major rivers, including the Ganges, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, and Godavari, are the primary sources of surface water.
  • India has the largest irrigation infrastructure in the world, but the efficiency of irrigation systems is low, around 35%. This is due to issues such as outdated infrastructure, poor management, and water losses during transportation.

Water Consumption and Global Water Scarcity

Water consumption has been increasing at a rapid rate, driven by population growth, urbanization, industrialization, and changing consumption patterns. The global consumption of water is doubling every 20 years, more than twice the rate of human population growth. The United Nations has projected that by 2025, freshwater demand will exceed the current availability by 56%, putting pressure on already strained water resources.

Water Scarcity and Stress in India:

India is facing growing water stress due to its declining per capita water availability:

• 1955: India’s per capita water availability was 5,277 cubic meters per year.
• 1990: This figure decreased to 2,464 cubic meters per capita.
• 2025 (projected): India’s per capita availability is expected to drop below 1,000 cubic meters, entering a state of water scarcity.
• If availability drops below 500 cubic meters per capita, India will face absolute water scarcity.

Several regions of India, particularly in the arid and semi-arid zones, already face chronic water shortages, affecting agriculture, industry, and daily life.

Global Water Stress:

• As of now, 31 countries globally are experiencing water shortages, and this number is expected to rise to 48 countries by 2025.
• By 2050, the United Nations estimates that 4 billion people will be significantly affected by water shortages.
• International conflicts over water resources are becoming more likely, especially in regions with shared water sources. For example, Ethiopia, located upstream on the Nile River, and Egypt, located downstream, have long had disputes over water sharing.

Water Uses: Water is indispensable for various human activities, which include:

• Agriculture: Water is the backbone of agricultural production, essential for irrigation to grow crops. Agriculture is the largest consumer of water, particularly for rice, wheat, and sugarcane farming. In India, water usage in agriculture accounts for approximately 85% of the total water consumption.
• Industry: Water is used extensively in industrial processes, including in the production of goods like textiles, chemicals, paper, and steel. Cooling in power plants and manufacturing processes also requires large quantities of water.
• Domestic and Household Use: In urban areas, water is used for drinking, cooking, washing, cleaning, and sanitation. Rural areas primarily rely on groundwater for drinking water, while urban areas use a combination of surface water and groundwater sources.
• Recreational Use: Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and reservoirs are used for recreational activities like boating, swimming, fishing, and eco-tourism.
• Environmental Use: Water plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystems, such as wetlands, forests, and riverine habitats. These ecosystems provide critical biodiversity and help regulate the climate.

Reasons for decline of ground water

The decline in groundwater levels has become a critical concern globally, influenced by various human activities and environmental factors. Below is a detailed analysis of the reasons contributing to the depletion of groundwater:

1. Population Explosion

• Global Population Growth: The world’s population has surpassed 6 billion, with predictions indicating a significant increase in the coming decades. The rising population has placed enormous pressure on freshwater resources, as more people require access to drinking water, sanitation, and food.
• Increased Freshwater Withdrawal: According to the World Commission on Dams (2000), global freshwater withdrawals have doubled in the past 50 years, reaching an estimated 3,800 cubic kilometers annually. The greater demand for water, combined with inefficient use and pollution, exacerbates the strain on available resources.

2. Over-Utilization of Surface and Groundwater

• Excessive Water Use: Groundwater and surface water are extracted beyond what is sustainable, especially in agriculture. Many farmers use more water than necessary to irrigate crops, especially in regions where water resources are already stressed.
• Industrial Water Consumption: Industries often prioritize short-term economic gains over long-term sustainability, using vast amounts of water while neglecting to manage their wastewater properly. This not only wastes water but also contributes to pollution in rivers, lakes, and aquifers.

3. Deforestation

• Loss of Forest Cover: Deforestation, especially in hill slopes and catchment areas, disrupts the natural water cycle. Forests play a crucial role in regulating water by slowing the movement of water, allowing it to seep into the ground and recharge aquifers.
  • Impact on Groundwater: Without sufficient forest cover, rainwater rushes off the land instead of being absorbed, leading to reduced groundwater recharge.
  • Flooding and Erosion: Forests mitigate floods and soil erosion. The removal of dense vegetation accelerates soil erosion, disrupts the flow of water, and leads to disastrous floods, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions like India.

4. Hydropower Generation

• Water Used for Power: Large amounts of water are diverted for hydropower generation, often compromising the availability of water for other human uses like drinking, agriculture, and domestic needs.
• Hydropower Projects: The need for electricity, especially in industrialized and developing nations, results in the construction of hydropower plants, which can reduce the amount of water available for natural ecosystems and human consumption.

5. Dams (For Agriculture and Power Generation)

• Role of Dams: Dams are designed to control floods, provide water for agriculture, and generate hydropower. They are integral to meeting water needs in both agriculture and urban settings.
  • Water Storage and Irrigation: Large dams enable year-round water supply for irrigation, domestic use, and industries.
  • Environmental and Social Impacts: However, large dams can cause significant environmental damage and socio-economic problems. These issues arise from changes in river flows, destruction of ecosystems, and the displacement of local communities.

Problems Linked to Dams:

1. Land Submersion: The construction of dams leads to submersion of vast areas of land, resulting in the loss of arable farmland, forest areas, and habitats of local wildlife.
2. Siltation: The accumulation of sediments in reservoirs reduces water storage capacity and agricultural productivity downstream.
3. Waterlogging and Salinization: Irrigation from dams may result in waterlogging and salinization of soil, further diminishing agricultural yields.
4. Ecosystem Disruption: Dams alter the natural flow of rivers, impacting ecosystems such as wetlands and flood plains. Biodiversity is often lost due to habitat destruction, and species of plants, animals, and fish are threatened.
5. Socio-Economic Displacement: Large dams often require the displacement of local communities, especially tribal populations and farmers. These displaced communities face loss of livelihoods and cultural disintegration, leading to widespread social unrest.
6. Fragmentation of Rivers: Dams fragment rivers, disrupting their natural flow patterns, which can impact aquatic species migration and local economies reliant on riverine resources.
7. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The rotting vegetation submerged by reservoirs leads to the production of greenhouse gases, such as methane, further contributing to climate change.
8. Conflicts Over Water Distribution: Large dams often result in unequal distribution of water, with large-scale landowners benefiting from canal irrigation while small farmers face severe water shortages.

Erratic Rainfall and Climate Change

• Inconsistent Rainfall: Inadequate or erratic rainfall, particularly during the monsoon season, directly impacts groundwater recharge. Reduced rainfall limits the amount of water that can infiltrate the ground to replenish aquifers.
• Building Construction: Increased urbanization, particularly the construction of buildings and roads, seals the ground, preventing rainwater from percolating into the soil. This increases surface runoff and reduces the natural recharge of groundwater.
• Climate Change: Changes in weather patterns, including droughts and floods, reduce the capacity of water systems to replenish groundwater. The over-extraction of groundwater in regions already experiencing climate stress worsens the situation.