Human Behavioural Dimensions in Extension
- In agricultural extension, understanding how people learn is essential for designing effective training programs, communication strategies, and methods for technology adoption.
- Three major learning theories explain this process: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism.
Three main learning theories guide extension work:
Behaviorism
Definition; A learning theory that explains learning as a change in observable behavior caused by interaction with the environment, without focusing on internal mental processes.
Historical Background
- Originated in early 20th century as a reaction against introspection-based psychology.
- Emphasizes measurable and objective outcomes.
Key Contributors
- Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
- Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is associated with a meaningful stimulus.
- Example: Farmers respond to a particular sound (whistle) to gather for field demonstrations because they associate it with free input distribution.
- B.F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning
- Behavior is shaped by reinforcement or punishment.
- Positive reinforcement: Giving rewards for correct action.
- Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant condition when desired behavior occurs.
- Edward Thorndike – Law of Effect
- Behaviors followed by satisfaction are repeated; those followed by discomfort are not.
Main Principles
- Learning is demonstrated through observable behavior.
- Stimulus → Response → Reinforcement cycle.
- Repetition strengthens learning.
- Motivation is mainly extrinsic.
Applications in Extension
- Providing small prizes to farmers adopting a new variety (positive reinforcement).
- Organizing repeated demonstrations until skill is mastered.
- Recognition programs for “Best Farmer of the Year.”
- Field drills for planting, weeding, or pesticide spraying.
- Cognitivism
Definition; A learning theory that focuses on internal mental processes—how people think, understand, and remember—influencing how they learn.
Historical Background
- Emerged mid-20th century as a reaction to the limitations of behaviorism.
- Treats the human mind like an information-processing system.
Key Contributors
- Jean Piaget – Cognitive Development Theory; Learning occurs in stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
- Jerome Bruner – Discovery Learning; Learners construct their own understanding through guided exploration.
- Robert Gagné – Conditions of Learning; Nine instructional events to facilitate different types of learning.
- Lev Vygotsky – Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD); Learning happens best when tasks are just beyond current ability but achievable with guidance.
Main Principles
- Learning involves acquiring, storing, and retrieving knowledge.
- Prior knowledge plays a crucial role in understanding.
- Instruction should be structured, logical, and sequential.
- Learners are active processors of information.
- Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Applications in Extension
- Using visuals, diagrams, and multimedia to explain improved farming practices.
- Sequencing training from basic soil preparation to advanced pest management.
- Encouraging farmers to link new irrigation techniques to existing knowledge.
- Problem-solving sessions on market price fluctuations.
- Constructivism
Definition; A learning theory that sees knowledge as actively constructed by the learner through experiences, social interaction, and reflection.
Historical Background
- Rooted in the works of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Dewey.
- Gained prominence in late 20th century in education and training.
Key Contributors
- Jean Piaget – Cognitive Constructivism; Knowledge is built individually based on personal experiences.
- Lev Vygotsky – Social Constructivism; Learning is shaped by social interaction, language, and culture.
- John Dewey – Learning by Doing; Practical engagement in activities enhances understanding.
Main Principles
- Learning is active, not passive.
- Prior experience and context are central.
- Collaboration and discussion improve learning outcomes.
- Teacher acts as a facilitator, guiding rather than instructing.
- Learning is problem-centered and related to real-life situations.
Applications in Extension
- Farmer Field Schools (FFS) for Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
- Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) to identify and solve local problems.
- On-farm adaptive trials where farmers experiment with new practices.
- Group discussions on coping strategies for drought.
Comparison Table for Quick Revision
Aspect | Behaviorism | Cognitivism | Constructivism |
Focus | Observable behavior | Mental processes | Active knowledge construction |
Learner’s role | Passive responder | Active information processor | Active participant & creator |
Teacher’s role | Controller, instructor | Organizer of content | Facilitator & co-learner |
Motivation | External | Internal + External | Primarily internal + relevance-based |
Learning style | Repetition & reinforcement | Sequenced, logical instruction | Problem-solving, real-world context |
Extension use | Skill drills, awards, repeated demos | Charts, models, structured training | Participatory approaches (FFS, PRA) |
Factors Influencing Human Behaviour
Human behaviour in extension education is shaped by a complex interaction of internal and external factors.
1. Biological Factors
- Genetics / Heredity – Inherited traits (e.g., temperament, intelligence).
- Neurophysiology – Brain functions, hormonal balance, nervous system.
- Physical health – Fitness, disabilities, illness affecting behaviour.
2. Psychological Factors
- Perception – How individuals interpret stimuli.
- Learning – Behaviour shaped through experience (conditioning, observation).
- Motivation – Drives to satisfy needs (Maslow’s hierarchy).
- Attitudes – Positive/negative predispositions toward objects, people, or ideas.
- Personality – Stable traits affecting interaction styles (introvert/extrovert).
- Emotions – Feelings like fear, joy, anger, influencing decision-making.
3. Social Factors
- Family and peer group – Primary agents of socialization.
- Cultural norms and values – Shared beliefs guiding acceptable behaviour.
- Social roles and status – Position in society influences expectations.
- Community and reference groups – Influence acceptance or rejection of ideas.
- Leadership and opinion leaders – Trusted figures affect adoption of innovations.
4. Economic Factors
- Income and wealth – Purchasing power influences decision-making.
- Occupation – Type of work affects lifestyle and priorities.
- Economic security – Financial stability reduces resistance to change.
5. Environmental Factors
- Physical environment – Climate, geography, infrastructure.
- Work environment – Tools, facilities, safety conditions.
- Natural resources availability – Land, water, raw materials.
6. Situational Factors
- Immediate context – Time pressure, emergencies, special events.
- Opportunities and constraints – Availability of choices or limitations.
7. Technological Factors
- Access to technology – Adoption and usage skills.
- Communication channels – Mass media, interpersonal networks.
8. Institutional & Political Factors
- Government policies – Laws, subsidies, and restrictions.
- Institutional support – Extension services, cooperatives.
- Political stability – Security to implement change.
